Then, other foods made available to slaves are listed, including: bacon, molasses, potatoes, poultry, and eggs. Heat in a Dutch oven or other large pot with a cover: In the early 17th century, tobacco farming began to spread throughout Virginias Tidewater region. Morning meals were prepared and consumed at daybreak in the slaves' cabins. All de possums and rabbits and fish and such wer jus dat much more"(5) Clothing for slave children was in general very basic and generally consisted of a smock like garment worn by both boys and girls. Sweet potatoes were not part of the African diet. These were compiled by slaveholding women, whose responsibilities sat firmly in the domestic sphere, and are now housed in historical societies throughout the country. 25 Slaves often gardens grew sweet potatoes in their gardens, utilizing skills that African Americans passed down from generation to generation. [3] George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, 41 vols. x}Y%q)kOIf5WN'|2k@[46 > TY4!4BF/>xu~}q%xdG?4O/ W?yqyP ^jrq:|'1Yv>=~uuZo? Upon hearing that these are the types of food that slaves were eating, as well as the extensive medical care provided to slaves, a layman that was ignorant of southern slavery practices would certainly be swayed in favor of slavery. Well substitute aluminum foil and an oven. What struck me is the summary of the June 1777, I agree, and checked my source before submitting. 84. eBook. Root crops figure heavily in modern African cuisine, and yams were likely well-known in the cultures from which American slaves were taken. Slaveholders lamented the theft of plantation stores, noting that slaves traded purloined corn, cotton, and bacon for goods of their choosing or cash outright. X11ej9G}R)\.}F5aj??*? Comparing and contrasting culinary practices as told through personal letters. What did the slaves eat? The ingredients and recipes of this early African American cuisine include: rice, okra, sweet potatoes, corn, and greens. After being established in the Caribbean islands, the plantation system spread during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries to European colonies in the Americas and Asia. 90. altogether different situation "us have plenty of good food to eat too. I also love adding greens to stews like my West African Peanut Butter Curry Stew. Some of the foods that could be consumed by slaves were beans, peas, corn, wheat, rice, oats, rye, barley, wheat flour, oatmeal, wheat bran, maize, apples, pears, beets, carrots, beets, carrots, apples, pears, berries, honey, currants, raisins, lemons, raspberries, plums, kiwi fruit, lychees, peaches, figs, pomegranates, oranges, grapes, peaches, His great-great-great grandfather Jupiter Gilliard, the man who purchased the farm, was born a slave in 1812. Fruit as Food and Medicine Orange County Observer July 7, 1883, U.S. House of Representative Speech of North Carolina on Food Adulteration, H. H. Patterson Account Books from the 1880s, A Cure for Consumption by Jillian Fellows, Catherine Roulhacs Recipe for Infant Food, Foodways During Enslavement and War Bob Paynes Object, Letter from Nathan P. Neal to Aaron and Elizabeth Neal, September 2, 1857, Letter of Charles P. Mallett to Charles B. Mallett, 18 April 1865, Letter from Elisha Mitchell to Maria North, February 11, 1818, October 12, 1863 Letter from Judge William H. Battle to his son, Richard Battle, Food wanted for North Carolina Solders in the trenches around Petersburg Riley Bechter, Circular from UNC President to Parents on Student Alcohol Use, September 30 1840, President James K. Polks Visit to Chapel Hill (1847), Hireling Labor and Slave Labor in Farmers Journal, Raleigh, May 1854, Mrs. Anne Ruffin Camerons Red Cabbage Pickle, Decadence and Opulence in Smart Society Dinners, Fight Taken Up for Oleomargarine, The German Club & a Tradition of Cotillion at UNC, The Carolina Medical Journal: Health in the Age of Decadence. . (n.d.). Place on a roasting pan, and bake until soft, perhaps an hour or two, depending upon the size of your sweet potato. It was to the economic advantage of owners to keep their working slaves healthy, and those of reproductive age reproducing. Some indentured servants were also leaving to start their own farms as land was widely available. Yet even the most thriftless and impoverished must have cherished the thought of that most conspicuous and politically subversive form of consumption. It is often smoked or roasted at Fall Pumpkin festivals. They adapted these to the harsh living conditions on plantations. %PDF-1.4 The roughly 5,000-year-old human remains were found in graves from the Yamnaya culture, and the discovery may partially explain their rapid expansion throughout Europe. [ii] Wilke, Richard, and Livia Barbosa. For most, these questions were no more than abstractions, as few enslaved people managed to purchase themselves. Cool enough to handle, and then peel the skins off and discard. Yet, this technique draws directly from Africa. The word gumbo comes from the Bantu word for okra, " ki ngombo ". It was put into a large wooden tray or trough, and set down upon the ground. Georgia Division of Archives and History. Perhaps the easiest way to monitor slave spending was through the operation of a plantation store. Print. Frederick Douglas describes a similar use of corn: Our food was coarse cornmeal boiled. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to European colonies in the Americas. "Those conversations need to happen so everyone has a voice at the table. 2 cups (450 ml) grits (regular, not instant). It's possible it was incorrectly annotated. This red pea, which originated in Africa and is the original ingredient in the region's quintessential rice-and-beans dish Hoppin' John, is just one of the many heritage crops from the African continent receiving new attention from farmers, chefs, scientists, and food historians. Slave cottage near Bardstown, Kentucky. Your email address will not be published. 30. They were also found in Africa and Asia were also based on slavery. I am wondering, however, about the timing of Mr. Researcher Alicia Cromwell says one major challenge is "studying the silences," a phrase coined by Harris, which forces researchers to engage in detective-style deductions to piece together a more complete view of history in the absence of primary documents like diaries and letters written by slaves. Your email address will not be published. Enslaved people ate crops or leftover food on the plantations. There are endless plant-based recipes for sweet potatoesincluding Ash Roasted Sweet Potatoes. But as the green, finger-shaped vegetable pops up on menus across the United States as an emblem of southern American cooking, the true narrative of the plant is at risk of disappearing, Harris says, speaking at a recent conference on food culture and history at the University of North Carolina in Greensboro. It means that whilst the dish may be a national staple on both islands in Trinidad and Tobago . In turn, we still enjoy many of the foods they embraced. % Planters embraced the use of slaves mainly because indentured labor became expensive. Enslaved cooks were always under the direct gaze of white Virginians. The fact that we still eat many of these foods today is a testament to the spirit and strength of these early African Americans. For Trinidadians, Callaloo is one part of their national dish: Crab and Callaloo- a dish which was created by the African slaves sometime around 1530 when the island was under Spanish occupation. Over and over again, we see slaveholders attempt to justify their rule by pointing out the inadequacies of enslaved consumers. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2009. :"Zc35I*Ga^ "Slave owners sent back and got seeds for what the slaves were used to eating, because they weren't used to the food here in America. Sweet potatoes are hearty vegetables that grow well in less ideal soil, which made them an ideal crop for enslaved people and lower class whites. There were many African grown crops that traveled along the slave ship with slaves. Plantation owners would ration food in order to limit the power of slaves. Private moments were rare, as was rest. Enslaved people at Mount Vernon generally wore clothing made from cloth produced on the plantation that was sewn together by enslaved or hired tailors. These remnants, scant though they are, make it clear that enslaved cooks were central players in the birth of our nations cultural heritage. Grits purists will be gratified to hear that, again, we will take a very straightforward approach to this dish, eschewing cheese, ham or other additions or embellishments. Typically slave labor on the plantation was divided into two broad categories: house servants and field hands. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1979. Southern Slave Life. The Weekly Standard, [Raleigh] June 30, 1858. Jones was a slave who started as a house servant and rose to the pinnacle of American culinary life with her extravagant multicourse meals. ", Bailey, back on Sapelo, agrees. Correction: An earlier version of this story incorrectly stated that Alicia Cromwell is a doctoral student at the University of South Carolina. Post-emancipation America still relied heavily on the skills and labor of newly freed African Americans. We should acknowledge, too, that the corn and rice would not likely have appeared on the same plate together. But by the 1800s, African dishes began appearing in these books. This was called mush. Historians have argued that slaves participation in the internal economy was a form of resistance, that simply the act of buying property repudiated slaves status as property. In my recent study of enslaved cooks, I relied on archaeological evidence and material culturethe rooms where they once lived, the heavy cast iron pots they lugged around, the gardens they plantedand documents such as slaveholders letters, cookbooks, and plantation records to learn about their experiences. Its double-edgedfull of painbut also of pride. 2. In a large pot, bring to a boil: For a guest, this must have been delightful: biscuits, ham, and some brandy, all made on site, ready to eat at 2:30 a.m. or whenever you pleased. On days when that wasnt available, hed head to the animal shed. I top them with broccoli and red chili paste, make quick Southwest Stuffed potatoes, and roast them in wedges for Buddha Bowls. If a traveler showed up, day or night, bells would ring for the enslaved cook to prepare food. Sugar plantation in the British colony of Antigua, 1823. "Yet gumbo has become totemic," says Harris, "linked forever in the American mind, particularly with southern Louisiana.". Scientists just confirmed a 30-foot void first detected inside the monument years ago. Practically speaking, slaveholders contended with the loss of plantation stores and risked unruly behavior resulting from unregulated rum. Rice is not native to the United States. watermelon. The slaves made up 80% of the property value of the plantation. It is to ignore the story of Chef Hercules, or the real story of Aunt Jemima. The 'extreme cruelty' around the global trade in frog legs, What does cancer smell like? Secession in 1860 sharpened this double-edged sword and threw all aspects of southern economic life into crisis. 2, 23; Ibid., 3, pt. They also had to feed every free person who passed through the plantation. Cultivation of sugar had to follow a precise scientific system to profit from the production. Others crafted brooms or baskets. Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic SocietyCopyright 2015-2023 National Geographic Partners, LLC. [1]. On the plantation, enslaved people continued their harsh existence, as growing sugar was gruelling work. Bats and agaves make tequila possibleand theyre both at risk, This empress was the most dangerous woman in Rome. Unauthorized use is prohibited. Franklin Street and its Changing Foodways, 2018, Average Age of Death and Average Income Across Durham County, 2014, The Reputation of Carolina Inn Restaurants, UNC Department of Nutrition Cookbook 1983, Sunrise Biscuit Kitchen Owner Interview, 2017, The Expansion of Chinese Restaurants in Chapel Hill During the 1980s, Vincenzo Marrone Interview, The IP3 Story, Student Resistance to Labor Rights Movements (2005), Student at Vending Machines, Carolina Union, 1983, Foundational and Colonial Culinary Encounters, Thomas Hariot Book Excerpt (1590)- Maddie Dyer, Letter from Florence OSullivan to Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, Instructions to William Berkeley Concerning the Settlement of Carolina, Hannah Wolleys Original Orange Pudding Recipe, Turkey and Deer Bone Awls from Lower Sauratown, John Whites Secotan Indian Village Watercolor Painting, The Journeys of Needham and Arthur Through the Piedmont, John Smiths observations on Native Virginia Plants and Native American Food Practices, Day Book 1774 No. Their comfort is promoted, he reasoned, and it removes the temptation to visit dram shops. Most importantly, it affords the master an excellent opportunity of judging the thrift of each negro.[10] Here was a powerful opportunity for masters not only to monitor slave spending but to criticize it, too. Grits are today considered a staple of the Southern diet, but they were, in fact, a classic merger of the Old World and the New. In the American South, okra is probably most well-known as the ingredient found in gumbo. Hercules was taught by the well-known New York tavern keeper and culinary giant Samuel Frances, who mentored him in Philadelphia; Hemings traveled with Jefferson to Paris, where he learned French-style cooking. For the women who wrote and preserved the receipt books, these recipes, the products of African foodways, were something worthy of remembering, re-creating, and establishing as Americana. Each of these plant-based foods impacted the history of our eating traditions. "Everybody needs to keep in touch with their ancestors, and through food is one of the best ways to get close," she says. This in turn may have had a very wide impact on the foodways of the entire country, as plantations and other slave-owning businesses played vital roles in the production and circulation of food and food-related items in early America. Corn was one of the most versatile crops eaten by American Slaves. And, they still play a role in our modern diet. Old cells hang around as we age, doing damage to the body. 9eBOn House slave was a term used to refer to those enslaved Africans relegated to performing domestic work on American slave plantations. Slaves rued old coarse shoes widout no linin, so stiff you could hardly walk in em. Masters, they observed, wore finer cloth and donned shoes made of soft calf leather. In food provisions, too, enslaved people noted differences. Our work has been featured by the New York Times, TIME magazine, History Channel, Discovery Channel, Smithsonian, Mental Floss, NPR, and more. Choosing to buy control of ones own body affirmed a slaves status as chattel, even as that commodity transaction broke the chains of servitude completely. [9] Goodloe, Management of Negroes, 13031; James M. Towns, Management of Negroes, Southern Cultivator, 9 (1851), 86. Of course, nobody at that time had any sense of vitamins or trace minerals, but some cookbooks of the period do have lengthy discourses on the importance of balance of different sorts in ones diet. In a burgeoning market society, finding goods for sale was not terribly difficult, as store merchants were more than happy to take slaves cash. A customer at Holland Bottom Farms in Cabot, Arkansas, reaches for tomatoes and okra. Well cook three representative dishes, each of which can help us understand a slightly different aspect of the food experiences of the Revolutionary Era slave. An illustration depicts slaves crushing the sap out of sugar cane on a sugar plantation in New Orleans. Yet, many of the plant-based foods in our current diet are reflections of our nations history. [an error occurred while processing this directive]. You also see evidence of this multi-cultural transformation in so-called receipt books, handwritten cookbooks from the 18th and 19th centuries. Food was often used as a form of control. 3: 81. More troubling to slaveholders, enslaved people also bought stolen goods in a thriving interracial network of underground exchange. A food historian, Twitty re-creates the meals slaves would have made on plantations using 18th-century tools and ingredients - some of which we eat today. "Black people have been in the room, but for so long they were so good at being invisible" that they were easy to leave out of the historical record, Harris says. Though the modern dish of the Carolinas, Hoppin John, was not described in print until the publication in 1847 of Sarah Rutledges Carolina Housewife[i], its roots are believed to lie in the Senegalese dish, thibou nib[ii]. Thank you very much!! Your email address will not be published. ~:J3c5T~84.6kcA9jrapbZWVP~t,KERdK2Zp28i6B The slaves were not only responsible for the cultivation and harvesting of the sugarcane, but also the production of sugar. Something I said, or perhaps everything I said, upset her. Purchased clothes were garish and gaudy, they scoffed. Prohibition on the College Campus Bob Payne, Sorghum Production during the Great Depression, Suspension of All UNC Dances During Prohibition Era, Goochs Cafe Advertisement featured in the Yackity Yack, 1925 Alison McKinney, The Dramatic Closing of the Tar Heel Cafe, The Daily Tar Heel Persuasive Article on the Success of the Prohibition, January 26, 1932, A Recipe from Marion Browns The Southern Cook Book, Tar Heel Investigates Local Food Situation As Price Panel Releases Violation Decisions, Extensive Effects of Food Rationing on UNC Students, Carolina Alumni Review Article Discusses GI Bill and Changes in Lenoir Dining Hall, Restaurants in Chapel Hill- The Carolina Inn, Leaflet written by the participants of the Holy Week fast. West African rice and beans dishes, called waakye in Ghana and thiebou niebe in Senegal, became the Souths Hoppin John. 8H^IBL,c~`x^',M pR5i?mT{QfwN se!ntRZ.Y2 B9G5<2h7POdS_]g*lXBN[g5=jV#NT 8u;MnOn/n VFAh.l~)Ra@6!vmR@JHI )HiZ 8@hw+ev#ZV'Wby-sOATsf:!S",K t1*m!6>2 Gb-xhD=pdW{ @|O. "The strange dishes they were serving us weren't strange to me, because I was going, 'Hey, we eat this back home.' B@k E0ZCl#a=y/%7rpVV{@h`zh-IFOVdRi9~ijt4z{;)'B1[tK [2R-mLhLCdF4jXp01]'7 *J0TzH}1dhl0&v7oN\"7nHi g r#H]lxVooIH*m'z!doXZ@WJFpDm;zr~ozJZ@Q,@|]4cv [5], Western Europe was the final destination for the plantation produce. Its not easy uncovering the histories of enslaved cooks, who left few records of their own and whose stories often appear in the historical record as asidesincidental details sprinkled through the stories of the people who held them in bondage. The word gumbo comes from the Bantu word for okra, ki ngombo. But cooks wielded great power: As part of the front stage of plantation culture, they carried the reputations of their enslaversand of Virginiaon their shoulders. Ploughing cotton (detail). He spent his first nine years of life an enslaved child on the piedmont Virginia tobacco plantation. The plantation system was based on slave labor and it was marked by inhumane methods of exploitation. Fantastic work and writing. Once landed, the survivors were sold as chattel labor to work colonial mines and plantations. More troubling to slaveholders, enslaved people also bought stolen goods in a thriving interracial network of underground exchange. Enslaved people suffered, yetas bidding in Richmonds auction houses showsthey recognized opportunity as well. But to be an American is to live in a place where contradictions are the very fibers that bind a complicated heritage divided sharply by race. In the American South, okra is probably most well-known as the ingredient found in gumbo. In 1836 the Southern Cabinet reported that some South Carolina slaveholders stocked plantation stores with goods most likely to be in request among the negroes, selling them at cost to enslaved consumers. In the mill, the cane was crushed using a three-roller mill. ", Georgia chef and farmer Matthew Raiford is able to reconstruct his family's past through his farm, which has been in his family since 1874. Purchased most often were cloth and sewing suppliescalico, cambric, muslin, shirting, and occasional bits of silkand ready-made clothing and accessories such as shoes, caps, hats, coats, dresses, shawls, shirts, and cravats.
. All rights reserved, Culinary historian and author Jessica Harris. But their enslaved ancestors were forced to eat whatever was provided to them by the slave owners. Maize, rice, peanuts, yams and dried beans were found as important staples of slaves on some plantations in West Africa before and after European contact. "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Enslaved men and women began the year with a set amount of cash listed in Towns log book, deductions being made over the course of the year for disciplinary breaches or property loss. Enslaved cooks brought this cuisine its unique flavors, adding ingredients such as hot peppers, peanuts, okra, and greens. Jollof rice, a classic staple in Nigeria and Ghana morphed into Jambalaya. David Shields, a professor at the University of South Carolina in Columbia and an expert in early American literature and food revivals, points to Emeline Jones as an example. These have been a great deal of fun to work on, and I love getting feedback from readers. In the rice-growing lowcountry of South Carolina and Georgia, enslaved men and women usually labored according to the task system. Under this scheme, planters or overseers assigned each laborer a daily task, hoeing a portion of field, for example, or pounding so many mortars of rice. I delivered the talk to an audience of 30 at the Maier Museum of Art in Lynchburg, Virginia. The plantation owners then turned to enslaved Africans for labor. The practice was abolished in most places during the 19th century. What enslaved men and women did with that cash or creditand what it meantchallenged the institution of slavery. In Slave culture, these big pots of stewed greens drew a direct resemblence to the stews of Western Africa. These slaveholders hoped to co-opt the consumer process and turn it into a management tool.[8]. Slavery. Most sources agree that the slaves were generally expected to get by on what was left from the slaveholders larders, supplemented with what they could raise on their own, provided that their owners permitted it. A mans world? But from the 1820s onward, we see planters strategizing further, introducing choiceor the illusion of choiceas a way to tamp down long-term discontent. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Keeping the traditional "stew" cooking could have been a form of subtle resistance to the owner's control. The Bantu people originated in Central Africa, near Nigeria and the Congo. Early receipt books are dominated by European dishes: puddings, pies, and roasted meats. In Ghana and Nigeria, fufu is a starchy mash used to sop up the broth at the bottom of bowl of stew. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called "the middle passage", and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Print. As consumers, slaves challenged slaveholders looking to maintain mastery. Number of slaves in the Upper South: 1,208,758 (29% of total population) 4,165 million. They also sold items at the weekly market in Alexandria to earn small amounts of money. The primary challenge, Harris says, is reconstructing history when one group of peoplein this case, white slave ownersdid their best to subjugate Africans to the point where they were nearly left out entirely. A reason many did not make it to the colonies at all was disease and illness. [3]. Despite the newspapers warnings, white Southerners could not have been surprised to see enslaved buyers browsing goods for sale. The practice was abolished in most places during the 19th century. [2] The number of slaves in the 15 States was just shy of 4 million in a total population 12.4 million and the percentage was 32% of the population. I know versions of his diary exist elsewhere, but the war time entries can be found, Thank you for sharing that, Adam. Slaves in a lot of cases were given some land to grow their own vegetables on also also soon keep few chickens and pigs. licorice. These cooks knew their craft. Describing holidays past, Esther Davis, a South Carolina planters daughter, recalled that in Camdens business district, those three days were given up to the negroes. Merchants angled for enslaved customers: the few stores that were open, were intended just for this trade and did a thriving business. Indeed, she noted, the foundations of some small fortunes were laid in those same small stores with their stocks of hardware, crockery, beads and brass jewelry, calico and bandana handkerchiefs, candy, etc. [6], Much of what we know about slave spending is anecdotal, but scattered ledgers from rural stores and outposts provide a glimpse of what and how slaves consumed. A slave plantation was an agricultural farm that used enslaved people for labour. Can we bring a species back from the brink?, Video Story, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright 2015-2023 National Geographic Partners, LLC. But to openly wear or use purloined goods was to risk detection and punishment. My presentation covered 300 years of American history that started with the forced enslavement of millions of Africans, and which still echoes in our culture today, from the myth of the happy servant (think Aunt Jemima on the syrup bottle) to the broader marketing of black servitude (as in TV commercials for Caribbean resorts, targeted at white American travelers). Which is to say, capitalismsfor better and worse. "Slave owners sent back and got seeds for what the slaves were used to eating, because they weren't used to the food here in America. One formerly-enslaved woman remembered that she and her family aint had nothin but de coarsest food an clothes. Educator and former slave Booker T. Washington commented on clothing in particular, recalling shirts that were stiff and coarse . Buyers on the black market, then, had to alter behavior so that they could consume goods without discovery. 4 cups (900 ml) black-eyed peas. Peddlers and wagoners roved from farm to plantation, selling trinkets, candies, cakes, and often alcohol. Terms of Use Red peas are a tangible connection to her own African heritage, Bailey says, and one reason why she has started to grow the crop commercially. These staples of our modern diets are part of our culture now because slaves smuggled them and cultivated them, sometimes in secret. Serve immediately, with pepper sauce if desired. Your email address will not be published. (19721978), 15, pt. Plus, a sweet potato puree adds creamy richness. My favorite plant-based recipes for corn are Roasted Corn with Garlic Shallot Buttah and Peppery Corn Grits with Tomato Jam. In cotton and tobacco regions, enslaved people more often worked from sunup to sundown under the close eye of a driver or overseer. "I had quite a few okra dishes when I went to West Africa. Food and Social Reform in the Progressive Era, Pepsi-Cola Advertisement in The Tar Heel, 1916, Food Conservation Effort in Orange County, NC During the First World War, News of the Academies-North Carolina Dining Hall (Aug. 3, 1913), Buffet Lunches Will Be Served During Holiday, What We Are Doing to Conserve Food and Keep Down Waste Jillian Fellows, North Carolina Supreme Court Case: Damages Awarded against Packer Because of Death Caused by Eating Unwholesome Fish, Waiters at Commons Hall, circa 1890s-1920s, 5 February 1916: The banqueting season of 1915-16 opened at nine oclock Friday night when forty-eight members of the senior class sat down in Swain Hall to grapefruit an maraschino.. (1849.) What documentation exists of what rations slaveholders provided is typically from later periods, but it would be in their own interest to ensure that their labor force was well-nourished enough to work effectively. They overlook that slavery, which affected millions of blacks in America, was enforced by a system of sustained brutality, including actsand constant threatsof torture, rape and murder. According to the 1840 United States Census, one out of every four families in Virginia owned slaves. Journal of the American Revolution also produces annual hardcover volumes, a branded book series, and the podcast, Dispatches. The next time you sit down to a piece of cornbread, a stewed gumbo, or a roasted sweet potato, take a moment to reflect on the story of this food. Once in the Americas, slaves then planted the rice for their own consumption. The sweet potato, indigenous to North America, is quite similar in texture and appearance (to the point that many modern cooks have trouble distinguishing them), and its believed that slaves simply used them just as they had yams in Africa.[iii]. In Nigeria, the Igbo people made a practice of burying their root vegetables to store them for long periods of time. These corn mushes and breads became the Soul Food staples of grits and cornbread. 2, 149; Ibid., 12, pt. Worse, they did not know the value of a dollar, allowing vendors to take advantage of their lack of consumer savvy.
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